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Hypothesis TestingReference: http: www.ltcconline.net greenl courses 201 hyptest index.htmhttp: www.cas.lancs.ac.uk glossary_v1.1 hyptest.htmlA statistical hypothesis test, or hypothesis test, is an algorithm to state the alternative (for or against the hypothesis) which minimizes certain risks.Procedures in Hypothesis Testing When we test a hypothesis we proceed as follows: Formulate the null and alternative hypothesis.Choose a level of significance.Determine the sample size. (Same as confidence intervals)Collect data.Calculate z (or t) score.Utilize the table to determine if the z score falls within the acceptance region.Decide to Reject the null hypothesis and therefore accept the alternative hypothesis or Fail to reject the null hypothesis and therefore state that there is not enough evidence to suggest the truth of the   Business & Finance
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Chapter 13: Using SpiesSun-tzu said:Generally, raising an army of a hundred thousand andadvancing it a thousand li (miles), the expenses to the people and thenation´s resources are one thousand gold pieces a day. Those incommotion internally and externally, those exhausted on the roads, andthose unable to do their daily work are seven hundred thousand families.Two sides remain in standoff for several years in order to do battle for a decisive victory on a single day.Yet one refusing to outlay a hundred pieces of gold and thereby does not know the enemy´s situation is the height of inhumanity.This one is not the general of the people, a help to the ruler, or the master of victory.What enables the enlightened rulers and good generalsto conquer the enemy at every move and achieve extraordinary success isforeknowledge.Foreknowledge cannot Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 12: Fire AttacksSun-tzu said:There are five kinds of fire attacks: One, burning personnel; two, burning provisions; three, burning equipment; four, burning stores; five, burning weapons. ? Using fire attacks depends on proper conditions. Equipment for fire attacks must be available beforehand. ? There are appropriate seasons for using fire attacks, and appropriate days for raising fires. The appropriate season is when the weather is dry; the appropriate day is when the moon is at Chi, Pi, I, or Chen. These four days are when there are rising winds. ? Generally, in fire attacks, you must respond according to the five changes of fire: If the fires are set inside enemy camp, you must respond quickly outside the enemy camp; if the fires are set but the enemy is calm, then wait, do not attack. Let the fire reach its height, and Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 11: Nine GroundsSun-tzu said:The principles of warfare are: There are dispersiveground, marginal ground, contentious ground, open ground, intersectingground, critical ground, difficult ground, surrounded ground, anddeadly ground. ? Where the rulers do battle in their own ground, this is called dispersive ground. Where one enters the other´s ground but not deep, this is called marginal ground. Where it is advantageous if you occupy it and it is advantageous if the enemy occupies it, this is called contentious ground. Where one can come and go, this is called open ground. ? Where ground is surrounded by others, and the first oneto reach it will gain the support of the masses, this is calledintersecting ground. Where one enters deep into enemy ground, with many walled cities and towns to his back, this is called critical ground. Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 10: Ground FormationSun-tzu said:The grounds are accessible, entrapping, stalemated, narrow, steep, and expansive. If you can go through but the enemy cannot, it is called accessible. ? For accessible ground, first take the high and the sunny side, and convenient supply routes. You then do battle with the advantage. ? If you can go through but difficult to go back, it is called entrapping. For entrapping ground, if the enemy is unprepared, advance and defeat him. ? If the enemy is prepared, and you advance and are not victorious, it will be difficult to go back; this is disadvantageous. ? If it is not advantageous to advance or for the enemy to advance, it is called stalemated. For stalemated ground, though the enemy offers you advantage, do not advance. Withdraw. ? If you strike them when half has advanced, this is Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 9: Army ManeuversSun-tzu said:Generally, on positioning the army and observing the enemy: To cross mountains, stay close to the valleys; observe on high ground and face the sunny side. If the enemy holds the high ground, do not ascend and do battle with him. This is positioning the army in the mountains. ? After crossing a river, you must stay far away from it. If the enemy crosses a river, do not meet him in the water. When half of his forces has crossed, it will then be advantageous to strike. ? If you want to do battle with the enemy, do not position your forces near the water facing the enemy; take high ground facing the sunny side, and do not position downstream. This is positioning the army near rivers. ? After crossing swamps and wetlands, strive to quickly get through them, and do not linger. If you do battle in swamps Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 8: Nine ChangesSun-tzu said:Generally, the principles of warfare are: The general receives his commands from the ruler, assembles the armies, and mobilizes the masses. ? Do not camp on difficult ground. Unite with your allies on intersecting ground. Do not stay on open ground. Be prepared on surrounded ground. Do battle on deadly ground. ? There are routes not to be taken; there are armies not to be attacked; there are walled cities not to be besieged; there are grounds not to be penetrated; there are commands not to be obeyed. ? Therefore, the general who knows the advantages of the nine changes knows how to use the troops. ? If the general does not know the advantages of the ninechanges, even if he knows the lay of the land, he will not be able totake advantage of the ground. ? He who commands an army but does not know Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 7: Armed StruggleSun-tzu said:Generally, the principles of warfare are: The general receives his commands from the ruler, assembles the troops, mobilizes the army, and sets up camp. ? There is nothing more difficult than armed struggle. ? In armed struggle, the difficulty is turning the circuitous into the direct, and turning adversity into advantage. ? Therefore, if you make the enemy´s route circuitous andbait him with advantages, though you start out behind him, you willarrive before him. This is to know the calculations of the circuitous and of the direct. ? Therefore, armed struggle has advantages, and armed struggle has risks. If the entire army mobilizes for an advantage, you will not arrive on time. ? If a reduced army mobilizes for an advantage, your stores and equipment will be lost. ? For this reason, by rolling up Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 6: Weakness and StrengthSun-tzu said:Generally the one who first occupies the battlefield awaiting the enemy is at ease; the one who comes later and rushes into battle is fatigued. ? Therefore those skilled in warfare move the enemy, and are not moved by the enemy. ? Getting the enemy to approach on his own accord is a matter of showing him advantage; stopping him from approaching is a matter of showing him harm. ? Therefore, if the enemy is at ease, be able to exhaust him; if the enemy is well fed, be able to starve him; if the enemy is settled, be able to move him; appear at places where he must rush to defend, and rush to places where he least expects. ? To march over a thousand li without becoming distressed, march over where the enemy is not present. ? To be certain to take what you attack, attack where the enemy cannot Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 5: ForceSun-tzu said:Generally, commanding of many is like commanding of a few. It is a matter of dividing them into groups. Doing battle with a large army is like doing battle with a small army. It is a matter of communications through flags and pennants. ? What enable an army to withstand the enemy´s attack and not be defeated are uncommon and common maneuvers. ? The army will be like throwing a stone against an egg; it is a matter of weakness and strength. ? Generally, in battle, use the common to engage the enemy and the uncommon to gain victory. Those skilled at uncommon maneuvers are as endless as the heavens and earth, and as inexhaustible as the rivers and seas. ? Like the sun and the moon, they set and rise again. Like the four seasons, they pass and return again. There are no more than five musical notes, yet the Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 4: FormationSun-tzu said:In ancient times, those skilled in warfare make themselves invincible and then wait for the enemy to become vulnerable. Being invincible depends on oneself, but the enemy becoming vulnerable depends on himself. ? Therefore, those skilled in warfare can make themselves invincible, but cannot necessarily cause the enemy to be vulnerable. Therefore it is said one may know how to win but cannot necessarily do it. ? One takes on invincibility defending, one takes on vulnerability attacking. ? One takes on sufficiency defending, one takes on deficiency attacking. ? Those skilled in defense conceal themselves in thelowest depths of the Earth, Those skilled in attack move in the highestreaches of the Heavens. Therefore, they are able to protect themselves and achieve complete victory. ? Perceiving a victory when Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 3: Planning AttacksThe Great General Sun-Tzu said:Generally in warfare, keeping a nation intact is best, destroying a nation second best; keeping an army intact is best, destroying an army second best; keeping a battalion intact is best, destroying a battalion second best; keeping a company intact is best, destroying a company second best; keeping a squad intact is best, destroying a squad second best. Therefore, to gain a hundred victories in a hundred battles is not the highest excellence, To subjugate the enemy´s army without doing battle is the highest of excellence. Therefore, the best warfare strategy is to attack theenemy´s plans, next is to attack alliances, next is to attack the army,and the worst is to attack a walled city. Laying siege to a city is only done when other options are not available. To build Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 2: Doing BattleSun-tzu said:Generally, the requirements of warfare are this way: One thousand quick four-horse chariots, one thousand leather rideable chariots, one hundred thousand belted armor, transporting provisions one thousand li, the distribution of internal and on the field spending, the efforts of having guests, materials such as glue and lacquer, tributes in chariots and armor, will amount to expenses of a thousand gold pieces a day. ? Only then can one hundred thousand troops be raised. ? When doing battle, seek a quick victory. A protracted battle will blunt weapons and dampen ardor. ? If troops lay siege to a walled city, their strength will be exhausted. ? If the army is exposed to a prolonged campaign, the nation´s resources will not suffice. ? When weapons are blunted, and ardor dampened, strengthexhausted, and Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Chapter 1: CalculationsSun-tzu said:Warfare is a great matter to a nation; it is the ground of death and of life; it is the way of survival and of destruction, and must be examined. Therefore, go through it by means of five factors - compare them by means of calculation, and determine their statuses: The Way,Heaven,Ground,General,Law.1. The Way is what causes the people to have the same thinking as their superiors; they may be given death, or they may be given life, but there is no fear of danger and betrayal.2. Heaven is dark and light, cold and hot, and the seasonal constraints.3. Ground is high and low, far and near, obstructed and easy, wide and narrow, and dangerous and safe.4. General is wisdom, credibility, benevolence, courage, and discipline.5. Law is organization, the chain of command, logistics, and the control of Sun Tzu The Art of War
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Sun Tzu The Art of WarSun-tzu ping-fa (Sun Tzu The Art of War) is one of those rare texts that transcends time. Though it was written more than 2,000 years ago, it is arguably still the most important work on the subject of strategy today.Written by Sun Wu, Chinese general to the state of Wu, The Art of War was intended only for the military elite of his time period. However, this treatise would later be absorbed by others of influence - from the fearless samurai in feudal Japan to the shrewd tribal leaders of the 22nd century. Literature
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